Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is often seen as a problem with attention and behavior, but it is more than that. Learning can also be affected by ADHD. At the core of ADHD are the effects on the brain’s executive functioning skills that we rely on to plan, organize, remember, and regulate emotions. This means students with ADHD aren’t just distracted; they may struggle with starting a task, finishing a task, following multistep directions, staying on task, staying motivated, and managing frustration when things get too hard. In a traditional classroom setting, where structure, speed, and sustained attention are often expected, these challenges can create missed opportunities and misunderstood behaviors. In this post, we’ll explore how ADHD uniquely affects the learning process and what strategies can help neurodivergent students thrive. 

Executive Functioning in the Classroom

Let’s set the scene: you’re in the classroom listening to the teacher’s lesson on something that may not spark your interest, so your motivation to pay attention quickly dissolves. In that split moment, you’re not listening, and you miss the directions for the assignment. You look around the room, trying to figure out what everyone else is doing, and you might start asking questions to those around you. You think, I’ll just start by taking out a pencil, but you quickly notice you can’t find it in your messy backpack. Next thing you know, your teacher is asking you to get on task with no further instructions, so, out of frustration and impulse, you roll your eyes or make an upset face, prompting your teacher to be more upset with you for being disrespectful. You continue to sit there, lost and confused, and too embarrassed to admit you don’t know what the assignment is, you didn’t mean to offend anyone, and you need the directions to be repeated. This is one of many common occurrences that students with ADHD experience in the classroom. Executive functioning skills are responsible for controlling each action that happened in this scenario. 

Let’s break down each action and apply it to executive functioning skills: 

Motivation and Task Initiation: “Something that may not spark your interest, so your motivation to pay attention quickly dissolves.” This speaks directly to the difficulty children with ADHD often have with initiating tasks, especially when they perceive them as boring or uninteresting. Low levels of dopamine in the brain, often present in individuals with ADHD, can negatively impact self-motivation, action, focus, and concentration, especially when the task is not engaging or the reward is perceived as low.

Attention Control and Working Memory: “In that split moment, you’re not listening and you miss the directions for the assignment.” This highlights the struggle with sustained attention and resisting distractions. The inability to hold information in mind and process it effectively (working memory) leads to missed instructions and difficulty following multi-step directions.

Planning and Organization: “You think, I’ll just start by taking out a pencil, but you quickly notice you can’t find it in your messy backpack.” The disorganization of the backpack and the inability to locate necessary materials reflect difficulties with organization and planning, which are essential for navigating the demands of school and life. Students with ADHD often struggle with keeping track of assignments, materials, and deadlines.

Inhibition and Emotional Regulation: “Next thing you know, your teacher is asking you to get on task with no further instructions, so, out of frustration and impulse, you roll your eyes or make an upset face, prompting your teacher to be more upset with you for being disrespectful.” This demonstrates the challenges with inhibitory control and managing impulses, which are common in ADHD. The inability to regulate emotions, particularly frustration, can lead to impulsive reactions and difficulty managing frustration. Emotional regulation is considered an executive function skill, and it often lags in students with ADHD who may have a history of perceived failures and disappointments that impact their ability to regulate emotions.

Problem Solving and Flexibility: “You continue to sit there, lost and confused, and too embarrassed to admit you don’t know what the assignment is, you didn’t mean to offend anyone, and you need the directions to be repeated.” This shows difficulty in problem-solving in a stressful situation and adapting to the unexpected, such as needing the directions repeated. Cognitive flexibility, or the ability to shift between tasks and adapt to changes, is also affected by executive dysfunction.

Self-Monitoring: “You look around the room, trying to figure out what everyone else is doing…” and being “lost and confused” demonstrates a lack of self-monitoring, or the ability to be aware of one’s own actions and their impact. This can lead to difficulty recognizing when work is not being completed or when one needs help.

Emotional Impact and Seeking Support: The feeling of embarrassment and being lost, and confused shows the emotional toll that executive dysfunction can take. Shame can be impactful on students who struggle with ADHD and executive function. They may receive negative messages from adults who misunderstand their struggles, leading to feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem. Difficulty with self-monitoring can also make it harder for children to recognize when they need to ask for help. 

This scenario powerfully illustrates how these executive functioning challenges are interconnected and can significantly impact a child’s learning, behavior, and emotional well-being in the classroom. 

Educational Functioning and ADHD

Based on the scenario above, the student is already in a tough situation. According to Barkley (2015), children with ADHD score lower in reading, math, and spelling compared to their peers, and this gap is even larger in the area of written expression because they do not acquire the academic skills due to their symptoms of distractibility and inattention, as seen in the above scenario. In some cases, students may be identified as having a learning disability due to poor academic performance that leads to a diagnosis of ADHD. In fact, 38% of students with a learning disability meet the criteria for ADHD (Barkley, 2015). 

In Russell Barkley’s ADHD: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment (4th Edition), early indicators in a child’s development are often seen in delayed speech and language development. For instance, a young child may have: 

• Limited expressive vocabulary
• Be a late talker
• May be slow at naming colors or objects. 

By early elementary school, children with ADHD and academic skill deficits are identified because they have difficulty learning how to read, which may affect reading comprehension by middle to late elementary school. Areas of reading deficits are seen in: 

• Phonemic awareness: hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds. 
• Phonological processing: processing the sound of language, including perceiving, storing, and manipulating these sounds. 
• Sound symbol relationships (Phonics): connecting spoken sounds to written letters. 
• Rhyming: two or more words that have similar ending sounds.  
• Syllable blending: combining separate sounds to create a whole word. 

In addition to reading deficits, early to middle elementary school children may also show deficits in learning math facts, understanding concepts of measurement, and math fluency. However, due to core symptoms of ADHD, children will have difficulty completing tasks on time and may complete fewer problems correctly than peers; this is due to difficulties with on-task behavior. Research shows that children with ADHD work for longer periods of time when working in small groups as opposed to independent seat work. Even when these children are on task and completing work, they often fail to pay attention to directions, rush through their assignments, or fail to check their work (Barkley, 2015). 

As children age, the symptoms of ADHD do not go away. As children with ADHD approach middle school and high school, different challenges may arise. Symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity may improve, but inattention stays the same, and in some cases may actually get worse with age as demands increase. By middle school and high school level, children are expected to self-manage their school schedules, homework, and projects as parents and teachers step back as the child’s independence and responsibility increase (Barkley, 2015). This puts a heavy load on executive functioning skills (e.g., planning, organizing, goal-directed behavior, and self-regulation). Academic problems that arise in elementary school have been shown to be a predictor of academic performance in middle school and high school. To ensure proper support and interventions are provided, school psychologists should ensure that they are assessing for problems with academic performance, cognitive abilities, processing skills, productivity, social-emotional well-being, behavior, and potential enablers. 

Interventions for ADHD in School 

Due to the nature of ADHD, it’s important that interventions start early and are ongoing throughout the child’s education. In some cases, stimulant medication may be necessary to address some of the ADHD symptoms. But in the meantime, this post will mainly cover non-medical interventions. 

Here is a list of interventions that are helpful for early literacy and young readers: 

• Shared reading or dialogue reading with your child by reading a story and discussing content is an interactive way such as asking questions about the characters or asking your child what they think might happen next. This targets comprehension skills. 
• Ladders to Literacy is an activity book that provides activities that could be embedded in everyday activities that influence a child’s development of literacy, print/book awareness, and oral language skills. 
• Phonological awareness training by reading rhyming books with your child, and ask the child to rhyme with you and predict the next word that rhymes in the sentence. Emphasize beginning sound words when reading flash cards or books by clapping out each syllable. Practice sounding out words by emphasizing the initial sounds and the remaining sounds. Identify each sound in a word like /m/ /a/ /p/ and put it all together in a map. Replace the first sound in a word to create new words like /c/ in cat and /b/ in bat. 
• Explicity emergent literacy intervention this involves know the name, shapes, and sounds of each letter in both upper and lower case letters. Practice print awareness by pointing out sections of the book before reading (e.g., cover, title, spine, pages). 
• Computer-assisted instruction for phonological sensitivity, such as interactive games and activities online. 

Early numeracy skills, often referred to as number sense, form the foundation for later mathematics learning. Children develop these skills through curiosity, everyday experiences, language, communication, play-based learning, and explicit instruction. Here is a list of interventions that support number sense in the areas of counting, understanding quantities, number relationships and comparisons, shapes and reasoning, patterns and measurements, and problem solving: 

• Counting in everyday routines: Incorporate counting into daily activities like counting steps, toys, or people.
• One-to-one correspondence: Encourage children to touch each object as they count, ensuring they associate each object with a single number word.
• Counting on and back: Practice counting forward and backward from different starting points.
• Subitizing: Help children recognize the number of objects in small groups (one to three items) without needing to count them individually. This is also known as recognizing finger patterns and subitizing dot patterns to 6.
• Connecting numbers and quantities: Match written numbers to groups of objects, helping children understand the relationship between numerals and their corresponding quantities.
• Comparing quantities: Encourage children to compare quantities using terms like “more,” “less,” “same,” “bigger,” and “smaller.”
• Ordering numbers and quantities: Have children arrange numbers in sequence or order objects based on quantity.
• Fact families and number combinations: Explore different ways to make up a number (e.g., 1+9, 2+8, 3+7 all make up ten). 
• Shape recognition and comparison: Help children recognize, name, and compare shapes, talking about their attributes (e.g., curves, corners, edges).
• Shape sorting and construction: Provide shape-sorting toys, blocks, and other materials for children to explore and manipulate shapes.
• Spatial vocabulary: Use words to describe location and movement, such as “over,” “under,” “next to,” “between,” and “under”.
• Spatial awareness games: Play games that involve spatial reasoning, like creating towers with blocks and comparing their heights or racing toy cars and talking about their positions.
• Pattern recognition and creation: Help children recognize, extend, and create patterns using objects, colors, or sounds.
• Informal measurement: Use nonstandard units like hands or blocks and everyday objects like string or containers to explore concepts like length, weight, and volume.
• Formal measurement: Introduce standard measuring tools like rulers and scales as children progress.
• Time and sequence: Use calendars and timers to help children understand the concept of time and sequences of events.
• Engaging in real-life problems: Ask children to solve problems in everyday situations, such as sharing snacks or comparing prices.
• Open-ended questions: Encourage children to explain their thinking and strategies for solving problems.
• Using manipulatives and visual aids: Provide hands-on tools like blocks, counters, number lines, and illustrations to help children visualize and understand mathematical concepts

While academic supports help address the learning challenges of ADHD, it’s just as important to consider behavioral interventions that support emotional regulation, impulse control, and social success both in and out of the classroom. Here is a list of strategies: 

Emotional regulation

Mindfulness and self-awareness:

• Teaching children to identify and label their emotions can help them understand and manage intense feelings.
• Mindfulness practices like deep breathing exercises can promote calmness and reduce emotional intensity.

Cognitive behavioral techniques (CBT):

• Help children identify negative thought patterns and develop healthier coping strategies.
• Cognitive restructuring can help students reframe negative thoughts and regulate their emotions more effectively.
• Developing healthy coping mechanisms:
  • Encourage activities like physical exercise, creative outlets (e.g., drawing, writing, music), and deep breathing exercises to channel intense emotions.
  • A regular routine that includes adequate sleep, a balanced diet, and regular exercise can support emotional health.

Impulse control

• Positive reinforcement and rewards:
  • Praise and reward desired behaviors like patience, waiting turns, or finishing tasks to encourage self-regulation, notes ADDitude.
  • Behavioral contracts and token systems can provide structured reinforcement for positive behaviors.
• Structured environment and routines:
  • Establish clear rules and expectations at home and school.
  • Consistent routines, visual schedules, and checklists can help students stay organized and reduce anxiety, according to Mass General Brigham.
• Teaching problem-solving skills:
  • Help children brainstorm solutions to challenges before acting impulsively.
  • Encourage children to consider the potential consequences of their actions before making decisions.
• Delayed gratification:
  • Activities like puzzles or board games can help teach the value of waiting for rewards.
  • Encourage a pause before responding or making decisions. 

Social success

• Social skills training:
  • Teach children how to recognize non-verbal cues, initiate conversations, take turns, and resolve conflicts constructively.
  • Role-playing and practicing social scripts can help children prepare for real-life interactions.

• Fostering opportunities for interaction:
  • Arrange playdates, encourage participation in group activities, and promote cooperative games.
  • Teachers can facilitate inclusive group projects and shared learning experiences.
• Building self-esteem:
  • Focus on the child’s strengths and celebrate small victories to boost their confidence.
  • Create a positive and accepting environment where children feel safe expressing their feelings.
• Communication skills:
  • Teach active listening, maintaining eye contact, and responding thoughtfully during conversations.
  • Encourage children to discuss their ADHD with friends and family to foster understanding.

Collaboration and other considerations

• Parent training: Provides parents with strategies to manage challenging behaviors at home and create a supportive environment.
• Classroom interventions: Teachers can implement strategies like preferential seating, frequent breaks, task modification, and visual supports to help students succeed academically.
• Professional support: Counseling and therapy can provide additional guidance and support for children and families.
• Lifestyle modifications: Regular exercise, adequate sleep, and a balanced diet can all contribute to better emotional regulation and overall well-being. 

By implementing a combination of these behavioral interventions, parents and educators can help students with ADHD develop the skills they need to navigate their emotions, control impulses, build positive relationships, and thrive in their social and academic lives.

Resources for Parents and Teachers

ADDitude Magazine – Social Emotional Regulation:  https://www.additudemag.com/emotional-regulation-adhd-kids-strategies/ 

CHADD (Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder)

https://chadd.org – Offers webinars, toolkits, and local chapter support groups.

Engaging in Phonoimic Awareness https://hellodecodables.com/blogs/on-the-blog-with-jen-jones/engaging-phonemic-awareness-activities-for-early-readers 

Lader to Literacy: https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/3048737-ladders-to-literacy 

Strategies for Supporting Fluency in Early Numberacy: https://www.mtholyoke.edu/documents/strategies-supporting-fluency-early-numeracy-marria-carrington-and-naomi-dupre-edelman#:~:text=Create%20opportunities%20for%20students%20to,go%20outside%20of%20finger%20range. 

References 

Barkley, R. A. (2015). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (4th ed.). The Guilford Press.

Carrington, M., & Dupre Edelman, N. (n.d.). Strategies supporting fluency in early numeracy [PDF]. Mount Holyoke College. https://www.mtholyoke.edu/documents/strategies-supporting-fluency-early-numeracy-marria-carrington-and-naomi-dupre-edelman

Jen Jones. (2024, October 2). Engaging phonemic awareness activities for early readers. Hello Decodables. https://www.mtholyoke.edu/documents/strategies-supporting-fluency-early-numeracy-marria-carrington-and-naomi-dupre-edelman

Kutest Kids Early Intervention. (n.d.). How to help children with ADHD manage their emotions. Kutest Kids. https://www.kutestkids.com/blog/how-to-help-children-with-adhd-manage-their-emotions

Vermont Agency of Education. (n.d.). Evidence-based practices for teaching math to young children [PDF]. https://education.vermont.gov/sites/aoe/files/edu-evidence-based-practices-for-teaching-math-to-young-children.pdf